Evaluating the match between natural ecosystem service supply and cultural ecosystem service demand: Perspectives on spatiotemporal heterogeneity

As part of ecosystem services, cultural ecosystem services (CES) have important implications for human wellbeing and social development. Investigating the alignment between the supply of natural ecosystem services (NES) and the demand for CES, along with the distribution of CES demand clusters, is crucial for promoting sustainable development and improving ecosystem conservation and management. By revealing the degree of match between NES supply and CES demand and the distribution of CES demand clusters across different regions, this study provides a scientific evidence for governments to formulate regional development strategies, resource allocation, and public service provision. This study examined the match between NES supply and CES demand and identify clusters of CES demand from both quantitative and qualitative perspectives, using a comprehensive analytical approach that combines points of interest (POI) data and the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model. Focusing on China as the study area enables an in-depth exploration of the impact of its unique cultural background and regional differences on the alignment between NES supply and CES demand, offering insights into policy-making in China and other similar regions. The findings indicated the following. (1) There were significant geographical disparities and imbalances in the match of NES supply and CES demand across China. Compared with 2013-2017, the spatial extent of low supply-high demand and high supply-low demand increased from 2018 to 2022. (2) The demand clusters exhibited clear distribution characteristics. The distribution of the CES demand clusters in China exhibits distinct geographical characteristics. Entertainment demand (V1) was mainly distributed in the northwest and southwest parts of China, and Aesthetic education and culture demand (V2) was mainly distributed in the northeast, east, central, and southern parts of China. Culture and entertainment demand (V3) was mainly distributed in the northern, northwestern, southwestern, central, and southern parts of China. Compared with 2013-2017, the spatial distribution of clusters V1 and V2 showed little change from 2018 to 2022, whereas the V3 clusters showed a significant decrease in southern and central China and a more concentrated distribution in northern, northwestern, and southwestern China. This study thoroughly investigated the issues of matching NES supply with CES demand and the distribution of CES demand clusters in China, offering scientific evidence for government policy formulation through CES studies. It revealed the connections between ecosystems and culture and provides valuable lessons and experiences for sustainable development, ecological preservation, and cultural heritage in other regions worldwide. This study proposes policy recommendations for optimizing resource allocation, strengthening eco-cultural conservation, and enhancing regional cooperation and coordination to foster balanced and sustainable development between NES supply and CES demand to address the mismatch between supply and demand.