Frosty pod rot: a major threat to cacao plantations on the move

Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri, is the most damaging disease of cacao in both Central and Latin American cacao-producing regions. The high aggressiveness and efficient dispersion of M. roreri as well as the lack of effective control strategies for managing frosty pod rot are responsible for its devastating effect in cacao plantations. Several factors affect the components of the disease cycle and, consequently, the epidemic progress. Gaining understanding of the epidemiology is necessary for designing new control strategies to reduce frosty pod rot losses. This review provides an updated view of the distribution, significance, and infection cycle of M. roreri as well as the current distribution of frosty pod rot. We provide an in-depth review of the meteorological factors, crop characteristics, and agronomic practices that affect the development of the fungus and the epidemics that it causes. We focus mainly on how temperature, relative humidity, spatial structures, and diversity of crops affect frosty pod rot dissemination and M. roreri proliferation. We then discuss the need for improved control methods including the development of cacao varieties that are more resistant or tolerant to frosty pod rot.