Nanoscale X-ray imaging

Recent years have seen significant progress in the field of soft- and hard-X-ray microscopy, both technically, through developments in source, optics and imaging methodologies, and also scientifically, through a wide range of applications. While an ever-growing community is pursuing the extensive applications of today's available X-ray tools, other groups are investigating improvements in techniques, including new optics, higher spatial resolutions, brighter compact sources and shorter-duration X-ray pulses. This Review covers recent work in the development of direct image-forming X-ray microscopy techniques and the relevant applications, including three-dimensional biological tomography, dynamical processes in magnetic nanostructures, chemical speciation studies, industrial applications related to solar cells and batteries, and studies of archaeological materials and historical works of art.