Toward sustainable utilization of tungsten: Evidence from dynamic substance flow analysis from 2001 to 2019 in China

Tungsten is one strategic metal with diverse applications ranging from military, infrastructure to chemical industry. China is the biggest tungsten supplier and consumer in the world, but few studies focus on the domestic tungsten supply and demand. By conducting a hybrid dynamic substance flow analysis, this study investigates China's tungsten flow patterns from 2001 to 2019. Various flows (transformation, loss, trade and recycling flows) and stocks are explored, covering all the relevant aspects of tungsten extraction, production, consumption, trade and waste management. Results present that China had extracted around 1344 metric kilo-tons (kt) tungsten ores from earth crust, consumed 634 kt domestically and exported 381 kt to other countries during the study period. Key findings include: 1) unstable production capacity had led to 136.16 kt of tungsten surplus during the study period; 2) 309 kt of tungsten were lost in tailings due to inefficient mining and beneficiation technologies; 3) domestic industry upgrade and rapid economic development induced dynamic changes of tungsten trade structure in China; 4) only 17.72% of end-of-life (EoL) products had been recycled during the study period. Finally, policy recommendations are raised to improve the overall tungsten resource efficiency from governance, economic instruments and technology perspectives.