Beyond post-modernism: Trends since 100 years

Homogenistic universalism has been the most dominant epistemology in Europe and North America, with rebellions occurring from time to time, such as the mediaeval nominalism, and existentialism in the 19th and 20th centuries. A recent rebellion was what is commonly called "post-modernism" which included symbolic interactionism in sociology, functionalism in anthropology and constructionism in psychology. It attempted to explain heterogeneity between social or cultural groups, but ended up with homogeneity inside each group. Similarly ethnic social movements aimed at attaining ingroup homogeneity as group identity. Ingroup homogeneity is theoretically neat and politically convenient but is artificial. A more realistic epistemology is needed in order to understand the dynamics of society and self. A morphogenetic epistemology, which was initiated by the author in the 1960s, is useful.