Transcriptomes shed light on transgenerational and developmental effects of ocean warming on embryos of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius

Ocean warming increasingly endangers the fitness of marine invertebrates. Transgenerational effects (TE) potentially mitigate the impacts of environmental stress on the embryos of marine invertebrates. The molecular mechanisms, however, remain largely unknown. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing technology, we investigated the gene expression patterns of embryos (the gastrula stage) of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius at different developmental temperatures, whose parents were exposed to long-term (15 months) elevated temperature (A) or not (B). The temperatures at which adults were held for similar to 4 weeks prior to the start of the experiment (21 degrees C for A and 18 degrees C for B) were also used for the development of offspring (high: 21 degrees C and ambient (laboratory): 18 degrees C) resulting in four experimental groups (HA and HB at 21 degrees C, and LA and LB at 18 degrees C). The embryos were sampled similar to 24 h after fertilization. All samples were in the gastrula stage. Twelve mRNA libraries (groups HA, HB, LA, LB, 3 replicates for each group) were established for the following sequencing. Embryos whose parents were exposed to elevated temperatures or not showed 1891 significantly different DEGs (differentially expressed genes) at the ambient developmental temperature (LB vs LA, LB as control) and 2203 significantly different DEGs at the high developmental temperature (HB vs HA, HB as control), respectively. This result indicates complex molecular mechanisms of transgenerational effects of ocean warming, in which a large number of genes are involved. With the TE, we found 904 shared DEGs in both LB vs LA (LB as control) and HB vs HA (HB as control) changed in the same direction of expression (i.e., up- or down-regulated), indicating that parental exposed temperatures affect the expression of these genes in the same manner regardless of the development temperature. With developmental exposure, we found 198 shared DEGs in both HB vs LB (HB as control) and HA vs LA (HA as control) changed in the same direction of expression. Of the 198 DEGs, more genes were up-regulated at high developmental temperature. Interestingly, embryos whose parents were exposed to high temperature showed fewer differently expressed DEGs between high and low developmental temperatures than the individuals whose parents were exposed to ambient temperature. The results indicate that gene expressions are probably depressed by the transgenerational effect of ocean warming. The roles of hsp70 and hnf6 in thermal acclimation are highlighted for future studies. The present study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms of the transgenerational and developmental effects of ocean warming on the embryos of sea urchins.