Simulation of Holocene soil erosion and sediment deposition processes in the Yellow River basin during the Holocene

The Yellow River Basin is ideal for studying fluvial landscape evolution under climate change and human activities. Quantitative reconstruction of soil erosion, sediment transport, and delta deposition in the basin enhances understanding of the dynamic mechanisms of fluvial surface processes. This study reconstructs the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation and vegetation cover based on geological profile records, paleoclimatic datasets, and historical documentation in the Yellow River basin during the Holocene. A landscape evolution model (Landlab) is introduced to simulate soil erosion and sediment deposition processes. Modeling results show that soil erosion intensity in the middle reaches of the Yellow River was weak during the early and middle Holocene. Since the late Holocene, soil erosion has increased due to vegetation degradation, as the climate became drier, but with more fluctuations. Since 2.0 ka (1 ka = 1,000 calibrated a B.P.), and especially since 1.0 ka, soil erosion in the middle reaches of the Yellow River increased rapidly due to strong human activity, with the intensity-six times higher than the average level before the late Holocene. Average sediment deposition thickness in the lower reach of the Yellow River (North China Plain) was about 2.4 m, and sediment volume was about 3.6 x 1011 m3. The deposition rate and soil erosion intensity showed synchronous changes during the Holocene. Since 2.0 ka, the sediment load and deposition rate have increased rapidly, to 6-10 times higher than in the early and middle Holocene. On this basis, the effects of climate change and human activities on the evolution of the fluvial landscape are discussed.