The quantum Hall effect as an electrical resistance standard

The quantum Hall effect (QHE) provides an invariant reference for resistance linked to natural constants. It is used worldwide to maintain and compare the unit of resistance. The reproducibility reached today is almost two orders of magnitude better than the uncertainty of the determination of the ohm in the International System of Units SI. In this article, mainly the aspects of the QHE relevant for its metrological application are reviewed. After a short introduction of the theoretical models describing the integer QHE, the properties of the devices used in metrology and the measurement techniques are described. A detailed summary is given on the measurements carried out to demonstrate the universality of the quantized Hall resistance and to assess all the effects leading to deviations of the Hall resistance from the quantized value. In addition, the present and future role of the QHE in the SI and the field of natural constants is discussed.