Sources of faecal contamination of shallow groundwaters in Kampala

An important element in groundwater protection and management is the identification of pollution sources. This study demonstrates that protected spring sources in Kampala are highly susceptible to contamination, with impacts on discharge quality observable within hours of rainfall events. Landuse in Kampala is complex, and land uses providing potential for both human and animal faecal contamination are observed. This study has demonstrated that sorbitol fermenting bifidobacteria and Rhodococcus coprophilus are useful indicators of human and animal faecal contamination in shallow groundwaters, and that both human and animal faecal sources are contaminating Kampala's groundwater in both peri-urban and high-density population areas.