The ice factory of Hudson Bay: Spatiotemporal variability of the Kivalliq Polynya

Within the dynamic seasonal ice cover of Hudson Bay, the Kivalliq Polynya is a large latent heat polynya that forms throughout winter in the northwest as a result of strong northwesterly offshore surface winds. Polynyas are known to be physically, biologically, and geochemically important and contribute to the regional ice mass balance; however, the Kivalliq Polynya has yet to be characterized in terms of spatiotemporal variability and ice production. Using a thin ice algorithm applied to the 16-year record of daily AMSR-E and AMSR-2 passive microwave observations, we examine the interannual variability in the spatial and temporal characteristics of the polynya throughout winter (December-April) over the period 2002-2019. Our study reveals that the polynya is present in some form almost every day but that its daily area is highly variable. On average, 182 km(3) of new ice is produced in the Kivalliq Polynya during winter, or approximately 20% of the end of winter ice volume in Hudson Bay. Daily ice production is found to be significantly correlated with the daily polynya area, though large, episodic events can increase annual cumulative ice production during a year of otherwise small polynyas. Annual cumulative ice production is also found to be significantly correlated with seasonally averaged offshore wind speeds, which explain 47.3% of the variance in winter ice production and drive a 46 km(3) increase in ice production for every 1.0 m s(-1) increase in offshore winds. Ultimately, the highly variable yet persistent Kivalliq Polynya is shown to be driven by offshore winds and significantly contributes to the regional ice mass balance.