Recent advances on 3D printing in hard and soft tissue engineering

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a versatile technique used for various tissue-engineering applications and regenerative medicine. Tissue engineering comprises three primary components used with the aim of restoring, maintaining, or replaceing organs. Three-dimensional printing techniques have significant capability in creating three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering and employing variety of biomaterials for scaffold fabrication. Three-dimensional scaffolds have an important role in cellular attachment, proliferation, nutrient transportation and vascularization. This review aims to introduce 3D printing techniques in hard-tissue engineering (bones and teeth) and soft-tissue engineering (cardiovascular system, nerves, cartilage, liver, skin and trachea) including scaffolds, applications and recent advances.