Bitchifying Hillary: Trump Supporters' Vilification of Clinton during the 2016 Presidential Election

Based on fieldwork and interviews during the run-up to the 2016 election, we examine how Trump supporters vilified Hillary Clinton as a bitch. We first analyze how Trump rally attendees collaborated to bitchify Clinton (e.g., through displays, chants, speaker-audience exchanges) in ways that fostered emotional bonding, a politically incorrect situational definition, and shared identities as Trump supporters. We then examine how interviewees constructed narratives that more subtly rooted her alleged posturing for power, profiteering, and evading justice in her bitch-like personality. To distinguish between explicit bitchifying-which was common at the rallies-and implicit characterization-which was common during the formal interviews-we develop the concept of "bitch-whistling," which frames but not names women as bitches. We conclude by exploring how this study contributes to understanding Trump's 2016 victory, research on gender and politics, and political narratives more generally.