Evaluating how varied human-wildlife interactions affect physical, mental, social, and spiritual health

Research on human-animal interactions has often focused on rural residents or health outcomes in captive settings. Meanwhile, relatively few studies have focused on how diverse human-wildlife interactions in non-captive settings and among urban residents affect health outcomes. Additionally, previous human-wildlife research on health outcomes has lacked attention to positive and non-material health impacts. This unidirectional negative outcome limits knowledge about the full scope of how wildlife affects human health. Situated in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona, in the arid southwestern U.S., our study examines residents' (n 1/4 24) narratives about their experiences with wildlife-both lived and perceived and their impact on health outcomes. Specifically, we evaluated interview transcripts for direct and indirect references to well-being along four commonly recognized dimensions of health. Observational interactions with wildlife were more commonly described by our research participants than attitudinal and physical interactions, representing 64%, 31%, and 19% of the interview segments, respectively. Combined positive health outcomes from human-wildlife interactions were more common among our participants (52%) than negative outcomes (39.6%). These trends contrast with a pre-dominance of research on human-wildlife interactions, which emphasizes physical conflicts and other negative interactions. The positive health benefits associated with observing and interacting with wildlife centered on mental health and understudied spiritual benefits. Our results showed that everyday human-wildlife in-teractions in urban areas create positive health outcomes, especially in the mental and spiritual realms. Thus, preserving current opportunities to interact with nature and creating additional experiences with wildlife is important for encouraging positive interactions between people and wildlife.