This research article examines the complex nexus between forced migration due to conflict and human trafficking (HT). The primary objective of this investigation is to expose how nationality and gender can be considered factors that increase vulnerability and risk of HT. Forced displacement occurs when a person or group of people is forced to flee their home or usual place of residence to avoid the effects of a situation of generalised violence, such as armed conflict, natural disasters, or massive human rights violations. The complex context in which conflict-induced forced migration takes place, as it is exposed in the article, can be a fertile ground for the emergence of HT. Article 3 of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Girls, supplementing the Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, defines HT as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability; or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. In recent years, the link between forced migration, conflict and HT has received increasing attention from the international community.It has been recognised as a direct consequence of the humanitarian crisis caused by armed conflict, as evidenced by several Security Council resolutions. In spite of this acknowledgment, however, little research examines the unique vulnerabilities and experiences of people caught in this devastating nexus from an intersectional perspective, focusing on how issues such as nationality and gender interact in these situations. To respond to this research gap,the article departs from a feminist poscolonial approach.Critical feminist approaches,especially intersectional feminism, highlight the importance of examining systems of oppression, discrimination and domination in order to fully understand the complexity of global problems.The concept of intersectionality points to how different forms of discrimination overlap and condition people's experiences and opportunities, leading to social injustice. Intersectionality starts from a situated context, both spatially and temporally,that recognises the particularities of interconnected experiences of oppression and vulnerability, creating a "matrix of domination" (Collins, 1993). Intersectionality thus allows us to uncover the production of inequality in social, political and institutional structures (Hancock, 2007). Specifically, in the case of HT, intersectionality allows us to move beyond geopolitical and economic considerations to address how social hierarchies and systemic inequalities can make certain groups particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Methodologically, the article elaborates two case studies to explore the forced migrations-human trafficking nexus from an intersectional approach.The 2014 civil war in Iraq and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine are undertaken to explore the nexus and uncover shared and unique intersectional factors contributing to the risk of human trafficking among forced migrants due to conflicts. These cases have been selected because of the relevance of their conflicts, which generated massive, forced migration, and opportunities for human trafficking networks. These cases offer a gendered perspective on trafficking and allow for an analysis of structures of racial oppression in diverse geopolitical contexts, providing a more complete understanding of the intersection between forced migration and human trafficking.This examination offers a more nuanced understanding of the complexities involved in the intersection of forced migration and human trafficking. Our analysis shows that the situation of armed conflict increases the vulnerability to HT of individuals in a mobility process. Armed conflicts increase vulnerability to human trafficking because of the poverty, inequality, lack of opportunity and violence they generate. Human insecurity makes people more susceptible to exploitation. Moreover, in these situations, trafficking becomes a highly profitable business for traffickers due to high demand and the weakening of the state.A person's ability to move and cross borders freely increases his or her vulnerability to being a victim of HT. Nationality and ties to the West or the periphery can determine a person's ability to migrate freely and his or her degree of vulnerability to SHR.The disparity in EU responses to the migration crises of both conflicts highlights how the mobility of people from the periphery is restricted and regulated, increasing their risk to HT. Furthermore, an individual's gender also affects their vulnerability to falling into HT in these contexts.Women and girls, who are highly disempowered in armed conflicts, are the main targets of traffickers ofTHB in these situations.They also face additional gender risks both during migration and in refugee camps. Moreover, the implications of HT for women's security go beyond the spatio-temporal constraints of war and migration. Not only does HT negatively affect women's security, but it also increases the risk of women relapsing back intoTSH (Healey, 2019), posing an additional vulnerability factor. In light of this, the intersectional perspective highlights that women from the periphery have a high vulnerability to HT due to mobility restrictions and lack of protection.The intersectional perspective allows us to approach HT in a gender-and nationality-sensitive way and to explore the intersections between the two.The background of individuals and their gender are intertwined and reinforce their negative effects on the vulnerability to HT of victims at the centre of this intersection (Chapkins, 2003; Kempadoo, 2004). Hence, minority groups of women, such as Yazidi women in the Iraq war (Healey, 2019) or Roma women in the case of the Ukrainian war (UNODC, 2022), are found to be exorbitantly vulnerable to falling prey to trafficking networks.This is because they are discriminated against based on their nationality and are denied the right to freedom of movement, recognition as refugees, and/or international protection. The article is structured in four sections.The introduction provides an overview of the purpose of the research, explains our intersectional feminist approach, offers a conceptual framework relating to conflict-related forced displacement and HT, and introduces the selected case studies.The second section conducts the case analysis and highlights the nexus between forced migration and SHR in the context of Iraq and Ukraine, paying particular attention to vulnerabilities related to nationality and gender.This section is divided into three subsections. In the first, we will analyse the link between forced migration and HT in both conflicts. In the second, we will focus on how race increases the vulnerability of forcibly displaced persons to being victims of HT. Gender-based vulnerabilities will be discussed in the third subsection.The third part sets out the implications for vulnerability that arise from the intersection of the different factors analysed that result in intersectional discrimination. The conclusion reflects on the implications for policies to address HT. By highlighting the unique vulnerabilities and challenges forced migrants face due to the intersection of factors like race and gender, the research provides insights to policymakers and organizations working in the field of human trafficking prevention and mitigation.The study challenges traditional, reductionist approaches to tackling human trafficking and calls for a more nuanced, intersectional understanding that recognizes the multi-dimensional nature of forced migrant experiences. It calls for a shift in perspectives, from state-centered approaches that prioritize border control and criminalization to more human-centered policies that prioritize the safety and well-being of people. In other words, policy adjustments that consider the complex interaction of factors leading to human trafficking, including the pressing reality of armed conflict and the consequent forced migration, as well as the impact of intersecting vulnerabilities based on race and gender.
