Efficacy of cognitive training on executive functions in healthy older adults: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Objective Systematically review randomized controlled trials on the efficacy of cognitive training on executive functions in healthy older people.Measures The outcome measures were related to inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.Results Thirty-one trials were included in the systematic review and thirteen trials in the meta-analysis. In the overall analysis, the cognitive training enhanced inhibitory control when measured by the Stroop task (p < .001, d = 1.64) and working memory when measured by the Corsi Block task (p = .002, d = .16). A marginal significance was found for working memory in the Digit Span task - Forward (p = .06, d = .92). However, cognitive training did not enhance inhibitory control when measured by the Go/No-Go task (p = .76, d = .59), working memory when measured by the Digit Span - Backward (p = .72, d = .95) and N-Back (p = .10, d = .26) tasks, and cognitive flexibility when measured by Trail Making - Part B (p = .08, d = .27) and Semantic Fluency (p = .49, d = .06) tasks.Conclusion Mixed evidence was found for inhibitory control and working memory; cognitive flexibility showed no evidence of improvement.