Is scale production more advantageous than smallholders for Chinese rice production?

In this study, field data from 148 farmers were combined with energy equivalents, greenhouse gas emission factors, and product prices obtained from the literature and official statistics to evaluate and compare the energy use, environmental impact, and economic benefits between smallholders' rice production mode (SHM) and scale rice production modes (Big grain growers' rice production mode; Micro cooperatives' rice production mode). Compared with SHM, the scale rice production modes increased the net energy by 425.02 MJ ha -1-13148.29 MJ ha -1, increased the energy use efficiency by 16.85%-22.89%, increased the net economic return by 15.67 USD ha -1-531.31 USD ha -1, increased the net profit-to-labor use ratio by 26.02%-393.87%, decreased the global warming potential (GWP) by 19.48%-27.23%, and decreased the yield-scaled GWP by 19.93%-29.50%. These results demonstrate that the scale rice production modes can satisfy the needs of reduced labor inputs, energy conservation, emission reduction, and increased profitability of rice production, thereby promoting sustainable and low-carbon development of the agricultural industry in China. Based on these findings, it is recommended that the government increase its support for developing scale rice production modes and encourage farmers to take equity in their lands or lease them to micro cooperatives for more efficient production.