Some recent developments in controlled-environment agriculture: on plant physiology, sustainability, and autonomous control

In this review, we highlight some recent developments in controlled-environment agriculture (CEA), discuss its sustainability and provide a future outlook, mainly based on recently published work from Wageningen University & Research, extended with other references. We present data on improvements in yield and energy use efficiency over the past 40 years and focus on several options to improve light use efficiency. Latest findings on applying different light spectra, with an emphasis on far-red are discussed, followed by the advantages of a dynamic growth environment. Sustainability of production in greenhouses and vertical farms is analysed. Recent studies, perspectives, and challenges on the use of autonomous control and digitalisation of crop growth and development are presented and this review ends with a section on future developments in CEA.