Serosurvey of Leptospira spp. in captive non-human primates in Spain

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease caused by serovars of Leptospira spp. that can infect a wide range of wild and domestic species, highlighting non-human primates (NHPs) as one of the most susceptible taxonomic groups. The aim of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence and potential risk factors associated with exposure to Leptospira spp. in captive NHPs in Spain. Between 2007 and 2021, sera were collected from 258 NHPs in 16 zoos and wildlife rescue centers (WRCs), and tested for antibodies to Leptospira spp. using the modified microagglutination test (MAT). Anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies were detected in 73 (28.3 %) of the 258 NHPs evaluated. Seropositivity was found in 61.0 % (25/41) of the species analyzed and in 87.5 % (14/16) of the sampled centers. Sera seropositive for six different serovars of Leptospira spp. were detected, with L. Grippotyphosa being the most prevalent. Seroprevalence was found to be significantly higher in Hominidae (61.8 %; P < 0.001) compared to other NHP families tested. To the author's knowledge, the present study is the largest serosurvey of Leptospira spp. conducted in NHPs in Europe and also reports for the first time exposure to Leptospira spp. in nine NHP species, expanding the host range for this zoonotic bacterium. Our results indicate high and widespread seropositivity of Leptospira spp. in NHPs kept in captivity in Spain, which may be of conservation and animal health concern. This study supports the need to include captive NHPs in monitoring programs to evaluate the exposure of these species to Leptospira spp. in captive centers.