Liquid-liquid phase separation in microorganisms: Insights into existence, functions, and applications

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is a universal mechanism essential for maintaining cellular integrity and function in microorganisms, facilitating the organization of biomolecules into dynamic compartments. Although extensively studied in mammalian cells, research on LLPS formation and regulation in microorganisms remains limited. This review integrates insights from diverse studies exploring LLPS across microorganisms. We discuss the role of intrinsic disorders in microbial proteins and their relationship with environmental adaptation. Additionally, we examine how microorganisms utilize LLPS to sense changes in environmental parameters, such as temperature, pH, and nutrient levels, enabling them to respond to stresses and regulate cellular processes, such as cell division, protein synthesis, and metabolic flux. We highlight that LLPS is a promising target for synthetic biology and therapeutic intervention against pathogenic microorganisms. We also explore the research landscape of LLPS in microorganisms and address challenges associated with the techniques used in LLPS research. Further research is needed to focus on the detailed molecular regulatory mechanisms of condensates, biotechnological and synthetic biology applications, facilitating improved manipulation of microorganisms, and the identification of novel therapeutic targets.