Seasonal fluctuation of insecticide resistance mutation frequencies in field populations of Anopheles and Culex species in Korea

Members of the Anopheles Hyrcanus Group, Culex pipiens complex, and Culex tritaeniorhynchus are prevalent vector species in the Republic of Korea (ROK), transmitting Plasmodium vivax and various arboviruses. Extensive use of insecticides to control these mosquitoes has led to insecticide resistance. In this study, we monitored 3 target site mutations associated with insecticide resistance (kdr for pyrethroid resistance, ace1 for organophosphate resistance, and rdl for phenylpyrazole resistance) in these mosquito groups over four consecutive years to understand the seasonal dynamics of resistance in different areas with distinct ecological characteristics. In the Anopheles Hyrcanus Group, the frequencies of kdr and ace1 mutations exhibited seasonal fluctuations in an urban-rural complex area (Humphreys US Army Garrison) (hereafter Humphreys), suggesting an overwintering fitness cost, whereas the rdl mutation frequencies remained constant at nearly saturated levels. These patterns were less clear in rural areas (the demilitarized zone separating Korea), indicating area-specific profiles related to different insecticide usage patterns. The kdr and rdl mutation frequencies associated with the Cx. pipiens complex were relatively constant, but varied by the collection area, with higher rdl frequency in Humphreys and higher kdr frequency in Yongsan, a metropolitan area, suggesting different selection pressures. Overall resistance mutation frequencies were highest in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, with ace1 and rdl mutations being seasonally saturated, while the kdr mutation frequency varied over time. Our findings demonstrate species- or group-specific seasonal and regional dynamic patterns of insecticide resistance, presenting the need for targeted control strategies and further improving the management of mosquito-borne diseases in the ROK.