Assessing the effects of long-COVID on mental health in the United States: a population based study

BackgroundWhile most individuals recover fully from COVID-19, a significant proportion of survivors experience prolonged symptoms lasting three months or more, a condition commonly referred to as long-COVID. Long-COVID conditions have been associated with reduced quality of life. By utilizing a nationally representative sample of nearly a million Americans, this study provides insights into the prevalence and impact of long-COVID on anxiety and depression in the U.S.MethodsWe utilize the Household Pulse Survey data, which provides the first population-based sample on the prevalence of long-COVID, beginning with its June 2022 wave. This survey also includes questions on respondents' mental health status-specifically anxiety and depression. We employ a quasi-experimental difference-in-differences framework to conduct research using control groups, to predict anxiety and depression among individuals who suffered from long-COVID.ResultsApproximately 51.8% of those surveyed tested positive for COVID-19 and of these 27.3% reported suffering from long-COVID. Individuals with long-COVID were twice as likely to experience anxiety and depression relative to those with mild/asymptomatic COVID-19. Our analysis at the sub-group level revealed that younger adults and females were disproportionately affected, reporting higher rates of anxiety and depression in both the COVID-19 and long-COVID groups. Additionally, individuals with lower income and educational attainment were more likely to experience mental health challenges. Relative to the reference group (Asians), Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics exhibited significantly higher odds of anxiety and depression in both groups. Notably, long-COVID was linked to a higher incidence of depression among males, which is consistent with previous research.ConclusionThis study fills a significant gap in the literature regarding the mental health effects of long-COVID. The findings from this study provide strong evidence of the link between long-COVID and anxiety and depression, utilizing a large nationally representative sample, and employing rigorous analysis with control groups.