Occurrence, removal and risk assessment of chemicals of emerging concern in selected rivers and wastewater treatment plants in western Kenya

Water resources play a crucial role in sustaining life on earth yet chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) arising from extensive human applications are an increasing threat towards their existence. In this study, we examined the occurrence, removal and potential risk of CECs found in rivers and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in western Kenya. Samples were prepared by solid-phase extraction and analysed using high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with a target list of 785 compounds. Out of these, 333 and 352 (influent 322, effluent 265) compounds were quantified in rivers and wastewater respectively, with pharmaceuticals, industrial compounds, and pesticides being frequently detected in both rivers and WWTPs. Compounds with highest concentrations included saccharin (9.9 mu g/L), metformin (7.5 mu g/L), and oxypurinol (6.5 mu g/L) in rivers whereas caffeine (280 mu g/L), deoxycholic acid (179 mu g/L), 2-oxindole (10.9 mu g/L) and ibuprofen (8.1 mu g/L) were found at high concentrations in WWTPs. Based on the types of crops grown, samples from maize growing regions recorded the highest number of pesticides (75) which coincided with the spraying season. The WWTP showed the capacity to eliminate some compounds although the removal efficiencies varied greatly with 204 compounds exhibiting an average removal efficiency exceeding 50 %. Based on the risk assessment, crustaceans had the highest potential risk for toxicity with toxic unit (TU) values up to 5.4 driven primarily by diazinon and dichlorvos followed by algae (TU up to 0.07) and fish (TU up to 0.01) in rivers. A similar trend was observed in WWTP with diazinon (TU up to 5.5), diuron (TU up to 0.07) and carbendazim (TU up to 0.006) driving the risk for crustaceans, algae and fish respectively. These findings highlight the significance of surface water and WWTPs as sources and sinks of CECs in the environment translating to potential risks on aquatic organisms and humans.