Skin and macular carotenoids and relations to academic achievement among school-aged children

Objectives: Carotenoids are plant pigments that accumulate in human tissue (e.g. macula and skin) and can serve as biomarkers for diet quality; however, knowledge on skin and macular carotenoids in relation to cognition in children is limited. This study aimed to address this gap by assessing links between skin and macular carotenoids and academic achievement in school-aged children. Methods: Children 7-12 years old (n = 81) participated in a crosssectional study. Skin and macular carotenoids were measured with reflection spectroscopy and heterochromatic flicker photometry, respectively. Academic achievement was measured using Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ-IV). Body Mass Index was calculated using height and weight measurements, demographic information was collected using a family demographics and pediatric health history questionnaire, and carotenoid intake was assessed using 7-day diet records. Results: Skin carotenoids were not related to macular pigment (r = 0.08, p = 0.22). Adjusting for age, sex, BMI percentile, household income, and total carotenoid consumption (mg/1000kcal), skin carotenoids were predictive of math (beta = 0.27, p = 0.02), broad math (beta = 0.36, p < 0.01) and math calculation (beta = 0.38, p < 0.01). Skin carotenoids displayed trending relationships with broad reading (beta = 0.23, p = 0.05) and reading fluency (beta = 0.22, p = 0.07). There were no significant associations between macular pigment and academic achievement (all beta's <= 0.07, all p's >= 0.56). Discussion: Skin carotenoids were positively associated with academic abilities in children, while macular carotenoids did not display this relationship. Future interventions examining prospective effects of changes in carotenoids in different tissues on childhood academic achievement are warranted.