Online informal language learning (OILL): a systematic review of studies (2014-2023)

The rise of informal language learning, especially learning conducted online outside the classroom context, has received considerable scholarly attention in recent years. To date, however, there has been limited evidence-based systematic analysis of the prevalence of online informal language learning (OILL). Accordingly, we conducted a systematic review of empirical studies on OILL published over the past decade (2014-2023) to identify gaps in the current research and suggest potential directions for future research on this topic. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach was followed, and 123 studies met the selection criteria. The studies included in this review highlight the following three themes: (1) focusing on ICT affordances and constraints to identify the potential of online technologies for OILL; (2) focusing on learners in OILL to explore the nature and learners' cognition of learning; and (3) the roles of various stakeholders in OILL. Building upon this review, a conceptual framework for understanding and supporting learners' OILL is proposed, followed by detailed recommendations for future research and practice.