Advances in refinement in animal experimentation over the past 25 years

This article describes, from a personal viewpoint, some of the major advances in refinement in animal experimentation over the past 25-35 years. It is written mainly from a UK perspective. Aspects of public perception and policy, education and training, and the competence of those involved in animal research. are commented upon. Recognition of adverse effects on animals is seen as the key to the refinement of animal experimentation. Elaboration on, and examples of, this theme are given by referring to refinements in animal husbandry and experimental technique. A brief look forward to the changes that may occur in the next 25 years is also included.