Mountain farmers' livelihoods and perceptions of forest resource degradation at Machiara National Park, Pakistan-administered Kashmir

High human pressures on Pakistan's Himalayan forests necessitate effective preservation of representative natural areas. Adjacent to Machiara National Park (MNP, 138 km(2), established in 1996) live > 55,000 farmers who traditionally used park areas for grazing livestock and extracting forest products. Baseline information was needed for improved conservation plans of MNP and development extension to communities. A household survey was conducted with the objective to profile the farmer communities (demographic structure, livelihoods), appraise their forest resource uses and dependencies, and discern their perceptions on resource conditions and trends. Annual population growth was >= 2.3%; most households were poor by regional standards. High livestock densities ( > 2 animals ha 1) lead to pasture degradation in sensitive areas, especially outside MNP. Between 2004 and 2010 populations of sheep and goat (often using marginal pastures inside MNP), buffalo (mostly stall-fed), and equines (for transport) had markedly increased. In contrast, cattle numbers had decreased, as nutritious pastures became limited. Responses indicated slowly declining fodder supplies. Availability of timber, fuelwood and medicinal plants had diminished to critical levels; to collect these resources respondents had to walk 3-5 times as far in 2010 (similar to 5-6 km) as compared to 1980 (similar to 1-2 km). Measures which may alleviate human pressures on MNP natural resources include promotion of veterinary services and alternative energy sources, and establishment of afforestations, especially on steep lands unsuitable for pasturing. Legal enforcement should be improved, but better participation and environmental education may enhance management effectiveness and acceptance of park rules. Demographics need attention as population growth rates are unsustainable, (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.