Ecological interactions of carnivorous plants: beyond the relationship with their prey

The carnivorous habit has been interpreted as an outstanding adaptation that let some plants the acquisition of mineral nutrients in habitats characterized by a chronic scarcity of nutrients. Substantial evidence indicates how carnivorous plants benefit from its interaction with prey. However, fitness of carnivorous plants depends not only on the interaction with their prey but on other interactions such as pollination, herbivory, and kleptobiosis. It is also known that evolutionary ecology of carnivorous plants is regulated by the cost–benefit ratio that is imposed majorly by the abiotic environment limiting photosynthesis. We analyzed how these three little explored interactions in carnivorous plants could promote scenarios rising additional costs to those that are hypothesized to occur linked to the evolution of botanic carnivory. In specific, we (i) explained a general ecological context of each interaction, (ii) reviewed how the interactions increase costs in carnivorous plants, (iii) identified factors that regulate the negative effect on carnivorous plants, and (iv) identified lines for future research.