Multi-route human health risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking and non-drinking water in Abadan, Iran

Natural organic matter reacted with chlorine used for disinfection, and finally, trihalomethanes (THMs) are formatted. The main purpose of this study was to determine four THM concentrations and human health cancer risk and non-cancer risk assessment from exposure through oral ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation for males and females in Abadan. Two sampling sites were selected, and five samples before and after treatment by two different water treatment systems (RO and ion exchange) were collected every week. Results showed that total THM concentrations before and after treatment by RO were 98.1 and 8.88 μg/L, and ion exchange ranged between 101.9 and 14.96 μg/L, respectively, that before treatment was upper than the maximum of 80 mg/L recommended by USEPA. Inhalation was the primary route of exposure by around 80–90% of cancer risk. Total cancer risk was higher than the USEPA acceptable limit of 10−6 via three exposure routes. Oral route has the higher hazard index values than dermal ways.