History, Archaeology, and the Question of Foreign Control in Early Historic-Period Peninsular Malaysia

Foreigners' descriptions of coastal Malay states between circa A.D. 300 and A.D. 1500 often claimed that these states were ruled by foreign powers. Kedah, on the northwest coast, was generally said to be controlled by Funan, China, or Srîvijaya, although other reports claimed that it was independent. More recent reports have often claimed India ruled Kedah during the early historic period. Historical and archaeological evidence indicates that early foreign visitors stayed at coastal centers, met primarily other foreigners, and were controlled by Malay officials. Geoarchaeological evidence indicates that many sites with foreign components that are located inland today were located at the coast, in a very different landscape, at the time in question. No evidence suggests foreign penetration of inland areas or control over the coastal centers.