Toxicity of gold nanorods on Ceriodaphnia dubia and Danio rerio after sub-lethal exposure and recovery

Gold nanorods (AuNRs) are rod-shaped nanoparticles (NPs) with special optical properties that allow their application in several areas including photothermal therapy, diagnosis, drug and gene delivery, cellular imaging, and biosensors. Their high potential for many applications increases the possibility of release in aquatic environments, which can cause risks to organisms. In this study, we evaluated toxic effects of AuNRs on cladoceran and fish (Ceriodaphnia dubia and Danio rerio) and their recovery after post-exposure periods. The EC50 of 0.03 mg L−1 was found for C. dubia in the acute exposure. There was a significant decrease in the number of neonates produced and in the filtration rate of C. dubia after sub-lethal exposure to AuNRs. The toxic mechanism of these NPs to cladocerans was attributed to increases in the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. After 4 h of recovery in clean medium, C. dubia were able to reestablish the filtration rate. Enzymatic biomarkers for D. rerio showed significant increases in the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and lipid peroxidation after sub-lethal exposure to AuNRs. These biomarkers were recovered after 168 h in clean water. These results are pivotal on the comprehension of AuNR toxicity to aquatic organisms and are useful in assessing this novel nanomaterial impacts on aquatic biota.