Life cycle energy demand and carbon emissions of scalable single-junction and tandem perovskite PV

Perovskite photovoltaics reached record efficiencies in the laboratory, and if sustainably commercialized, they would accelerate a green energy transition. This article presents the development of life cycle inventory material and energy databases of four most promising single-junction and three tandem scalable perovskite systems with assumptions regarding scalable production validated by industry experts. We conducted comprehensive "ex ante" life cycle analysis (LCA) and net energy analysis, analyzing their cumulative energy demand, global warming potential profiles, energy payback times, and energy return on investment (EROI). LCA contribution analysis elucidates the most impactful material and process choices. It shows that solution-based perovskite manufacturing would have lower environmental impact than vapor-based methods, and that roll-to-roll (RtR) printing offers the lowest impact. Among material choices, MoOx/Al has lower impact than Ag, and fluorine-tin-oxide lower than indium-tin-oxide. Furthermore, we compare perovskites with commercial crystalline-silicon and thin-film PV, accounting for the most recent developments in crystalline-Si wafer production and differences in life expectancies and efficiencies. It is shown that perovskite systems produced with RtR manufacturing could reach in only 12 years of life, the same EROI as that of single-crystalline-Si PV lasting 30 years. This work lays a foundation for sustainability investigations of perovskite large-scale deployment.