This collaborative research investigated the quality of early language and literacy environments in South Africa and Spain via multiple methods of data gathering (i.e. the administration of the ELLCO; the recording of field notes; and individual interviews with teachers). In addition, it identified the challenges that teachers experience in their quest to develop English as a second language in their classrooms. The South African sample consists of twelve Grade 3 classes, all located in the Free State Province, South Africa. These include schools where the language of instruction (LOLT) is Sesotho (n = 6), and Afrikaans (n = 6) and where English is introduced as the additional language. Similarly, four Grade 3 classes were invited to participate in Granada, Spain (where the LOLT is Spanish and the second language is English). Individual interviews were conducted with early childhood teachers (n = 16; one educator per school). The ELLCO results reported in this paper will pertain to the classroom structure, the literacy curriculum, the language environment, books and reading, and the print and writing opportunities. Comparative results from this project have demonstrated that the Spanish classes scored higher on all the ELLCO sub scales than the South African sample. Classroom observations and teacher interviews confirmed some of the main challenges that Spanish teachers experience in teaching English, namely the shortage of English reading books for recreational reading; a lack of strategies to build reading vocabulary effectively; and problems related to the development of phonological awareness skills in English. With regard to the South African sample, the quality of early language and literacy development varied meaningfully between rural and urban schools. The main challenges experienced by South African teachers included overcrowded classes and its impact on learning both a first and second language, as well as teachers' limited proficiency in teaching English, especially in rural schools. A lack of parental support and learners' being deprived of quality home-literacy experiences were general concerns raised by teachers at the South African schools, both rural and urban. The ELLCO test recorded the test subscale that deals with print and writing as the most challenging item for South African classes. Finally, results from this collaborative research project between Spain and South Africa have reaffirmed the need for empirically validated strategies to improve the teaching of English as a second language. They also highlighted the need to extend the findings of this collaborative research project by investigating the specific role and inter-relatedness of emergent literacy and cognitive-linguistic skills in a home language (for example, Spanish, Afrikaans or Sesotho) and the possible transfer of these skills in L1 to L2 (for example, to English). In this sense, future research can play a significant role in supporting L1 and L2 teachers and strengthening our theoretical explanations for reading and literacy development in both L1 and L2. At the same time, it could also make significant, empirically validated recommendations for designing effective prevention and early intervention programmes for learners who experience literacy barriers to learning (in both L1 and L2).
