Redefining transfer in biotechnology and software - Multiple creation of knowledge and issues of ownership

Biotechnology has been seen to be a new model of how to transfer knowledge and technology between universities and firms, and to a certain extent, between firms. Particularly based on American experience, the new biotechnology model should help inspire transfer activities in other technologies as well. An important question therefore is, to what extent does biotechnology really exemplify transfer? Or should it instead be seen as multiple creation of knowledge in relation to contexts of use? Using examples from biotechnology, it is argued that knowledge and technology transfer must be seen as active processes, where both parties are interested in creating and using new knowledge. Even users must create knowledge applicable to their problems and their opportunities. Because creation and diffusion of knowledge must then be seen as an active process, one must understand the actors' various incentives to create and use knowledge as well as their incentives to keep information secret, respectively, transmit it publicly. Secrecy and public disclosure are not identical with, but are related to, ownership. International comparisons initiate a discussion about which institutions and rules have enabled, respectively hindered, diffusion in the complex and rapidly changing technologies of biotechnology and software.