Changes in ecosystem services in a montane landscape impacted by major earthquakes: A case study in Wenchuan earthquake-affected area, China

Earthquakes are one of the most serious natural disasters, threatening ecological balance and security. Ecosystem services (ESs) reflect the multiple functions of an ecosystem. However, based on catastrophic disasters, the contributions of various factors to ESs recovery have not been previously quantified. We follow recovery after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake to gain insight into these processes. To quantify ESs, biophysical models were applied, including scenario simulation and Geodetector methods that were used to explore the driving forces. We concluded as follows: in overall study area, ESs showed an insignificant but undulating increase from 2001 to 2017, indicating the earthquake had slight but long-term effects. In the vegetated areas denuded by co-seismic landslides, the loss in ESs was twice that in non-denuded areas, and the damaged ESs did not recover to preearthquake levels by 2017. Overall, climate change was the main driving force, and the factors directly related to local climate had a more obvious impact on ESs especially elevation and geomorphic types. More than three quarters of study area showed ESs increases, with climate (accounting for 40.26%) and its multiple interactions with non-climate factors (accounting for 45.91%) contributed the most to ESs restoration, respectively at low elevations and in the subalpine mountains. Nearly a quarter of the study area was still degraded, of which the proportion of the area representing non-climate-driven factors had increased (accounting for 20.68%). The intensity of ESs degradation mainly concentrated in XI and X regions where co-seismic landslides were dense, which was one of the most influential non-climate factors. We therefore recommend that in the post-disaster reconstruction stage, more attention should be paid to restoration and maintenance of ecological service functions in areas with frequent secondary disasters, so as to maximize the benefits of post-disaster reconstruction projects and seek socio-economic and ecological environment collaborative development.