Marine protected areas in southern China: Upgrading conservation effectiveness in the 'eco-civilization' era

China has undergone massive economic development over the last several decades, but at the cost of serious environmental degradation, including to coastal and marine ecosystems. This paper describes the governance arrangements for management of coastal and marine areas of southern, mainland China and Hong Kong, especially marine protected areas (MPAs). Although not widely recognized internationally, there are 123 designated MPAs spread across the South China Sea coast. However, the effectiveness of these MPAs in conservation of ecosystem goods and services is seriously limited by a familiar range of pressures, including limited resources, insufficient enforcement and massive coastal development. Recent developments in national policy include integration of all protected areas (including marine) under a single agency, a range of limits on coastal development and water pollution, and the strategy of 'eco-civilization' to balance environmental management with economic development. If successfully implemented, these policies would profoundly change the course of marine environments in China, with globally significant consequences. Recommendations for improving MPA performance in China include: ensuring that marine systems are not overwhelmed within the new national jurisdiction, and maintaining and enhancing marine capacity; increased resourcing, supported by comprehensive and systematic economic valuations of ecosystem goods and services and natural capital; upgraded enforcement of existing environmental laws and regulations, combined with further refinement and development, especially around cumulative impact management; a particular focus on major reduction in water pollution in all forms; integration of marine management between Hong Kong SAR and surrounding Guangdong Province; and enhanced community engagement, participation and education. Finally, much greater, collaborative engagement by the international community with Chinese marine management and conservation would bring major, and very mutual, benefits.