The Ibadi "stages of religion" re-examined: Tracing the history of the Masalik al-Din

With few exceptions, scholarly presentations of the IbadT "stages of religion" (masalik al-din) and their corresponding Imams (i.e. imam al-zuhar, imam al-difd, imam al-shira', and imam al-kitman) propose a simplified overview of the institution that is based on post-Ibadi renaissance thought on the Imamate. This paper investigates the pre-renaissance usages of the masalik al-din by comparing sixth/twelfth-century Arabian and North African lbadi texts on the subject. It demonstrates that Eastern and Western lbadis manipulated the concepts central to the later masalik al-din ideal to reflect the particular needs of each respective community. While the articulations of the masalik al-din differed according to region, they simultaneously utilized a similar vocabulary. This convergence implies an earlier and inherited conceptual system (most likely from the earliest Basran lbadT umma) that was adapted in the medieval period to fulfil the unique needs of each community.