Survival and cause-specific mortality of red deer Cervus elaphus in Bialowieia National Park, Poland

Information is needed from protected populations of game species to help understand natural rates of mortality, and as a means for comparisons with populations hunted by human beings. Additionally, little is known about red deer Cervus elaphus survival in historic habitat with large carnivores present. During 2001-2004, we estimated survival and cause-specific mortality of 35 red deer in the Bialowieza National Park (BNP), Poland. The BNP contains the last remnant of old-growth lowland forests in Europe, and both predator and prey populations are protected from human exploitation. For all deer, survival did not differ among years or seasons. Annual survival of all deer was 56%, and survival rates were similar for adult males (75%) and females (64%), but was higher for adults (71%) than for young (15%). Predation, primarily caused by wolves Canis lupus, was the most common source of mortality (10 of 12 red deer deaths) and contributed most to the differences in survival between adult and young red deer.