The past, present, and future of gibbons in China

Gibbons (Hylobatidae) were widely distributed across much of China during recent centuries, but are now restricted to a few small areas of Hainan, Guangxi, and Yunnan provinces due to massive habitat loss and hunting. Six gibbon species have occurred recently in China. Two of them (Hylobates lar and Nomascus leucogenys) are now extinct; two others (Nomascus nasutus and Nomascus hainanus) each have only one small population with less than 30 individuals; Hoolock leuconedys has a small population of less than 200 individuals distributed in 17 locations; and even the most common species, Nomascus concolor, has populations containing only about 270 social groups (ca. 1200 individuals). Illegal hunting, forest fragmentation, small population size, limited habitat, and various other types of human disturbance still threaten remnant gibbon populations. Currently, all gibbon species are listed as Class One Protected Animals by Chinese law and about 85% of gibbon groups are protected within nature reserves. Several long-term monitoring and research programs have been established in order to better understand gibbon population dynamics, ecology, and behavioral adaptations to human disturbance, and habitat restoration and conservation education programs are underway. In order to ensure long-term survival of gibbons in China, expanding and establishing nature reserves, strengthening law enforcement, increasing conservation education, establishing captive breeding programs for reintroduction, recruiting new researchers and students, and international cooperation are suggested. If most of these activities can be achieved, Chinese gibbons may still have a future in the wild. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.