Does prey dispersion affect frequency-dependent predation by wild birds?

Despite the fact that the vast natural prey items are dispersed in a manner, few studies of frequency-dependent selective predation have explicitly examined the effect of prey dispersion on selectivity. We examined the effect of prey dispersion on the direction and strength of frequency-dependent selection by wild birds feeding on artificial prey (green or brown pastry baits), In a series of four experimental manipulations, we tested fur the occurrence of frequency dependence with two different dispersion patterns (random or clumped). Manipulations were carried out at one of two absolute densities (25 prey m(-2) or 100 prey m(-2)), and were repeated at different sites in Southampton, England and Aljarafe, Spain. Our results suggest that prey dispersion has no effect on either frequency-dependent or -independent preferences. One possible explanation for this is that the birds had virtually complete information about prey frequencies at the relatively high densities used and based their preferences on their overall perception of availability. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that dispersion may influence selectivity when prey are cryptic or available at lower absolute densities. Although there was no effect of dispersion, frequencies-dependent selection was, overall, significantly anti-apostatic (i.e, rare baits were more preferred than common baits). This anti-apostatic effect was stronger in Southampton than Aljarafe and stronger at 100 prey m(-2) than 25 prey m(-2). The differences in the strength of selection between the two locations was interpreted in terms of (i) whether the avian predators foraged in flocks or not, and (ii) the number of different species present (and, consequently,the variation in preference among individual birds).