The inclusion and exclusion of minorities in European countries: a comparative analysis at the local level

Facing the reality of groups in Europe being in effect socially and politically marginalized, this article asks how the political inclusion of minorities is and should be established at the local level. First, a model is developed building on normative theories of political inclusion. This points to the importance of two dimensions of inclusion and exclusion, namely the possibility of direct participation and the granting of (special) rights to minorities. In order to test the relevance of the model data based on a survey among approximately 5000 members of the local elite in East and West European countries are analysed. The conclusion is that most local officials in East and Western Europe are remarkably unwilling to allow for special participatory arrangements or special rights. A difference between the old and new democracies in Europe as to the propensities towards possible democratic arrangements is revealed. In the old democracies, local elites are more positive as to general participatory arrangements, whereas the elites in the new democracies are more inclined to grant minorities the right to organize and institutionalize. Further analysis indicates that the differences found cannot be explained in terms of individual traits. Moral and cultural values and structural circumstances seem to be dominant factors. The relative stability of such factors suggests that we cannot be optimistic about the development of more inclusive arrangements on behalf of those that now seem to be systematically excluded.