Self-directed learning means students defining their own goals (representing a realistic and challenging level of aspiration) and defining the path or means to achieve the said goal. Self-directed learning is not an individual endeavour where students work in isolation, with only their own resources to help them. Typically, SDL is a social endeavour where students work in cooperative groups with the resources of all group members available to assist and help them. While SDL assumes students select their own learning goals, in most organizations goals are imposed. Students, therefore, must be influenced to internalize imposed goals and make them personal goals. The ownership of the goals has to shift from teachers and the school to the students, usually through dialogue and discussions with the teacher and classmates. It should be noted that most students pursue multiple goals simultaneously. These goals may be academic (such as learning to read), social (such as making friends) and developmental (such as adopting more complex patterns of thought and analysis). Two of the theories underlying the nature of CL are Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. These two theories have the same underlying premise (Watson & Johnson 1972; Johnson & Johnson 1989): The way the goals of a situation are structured determines the process individuals engage in to achieve [their] goals, [and the process] determines the outcomes. (p. 5) According to Social Interdependence theory, CL is 'students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning' (i.e. achieve shared learning goals). Competitive learning is students working against each other to achieve an academic goal such as a grade of 'A' that only one or a few students can attain. Individualistic learning is students working by themselves to accomplish learning goals unrelated to those of the other students (Johnson, Johnson & Smith 2006). Cooperative learning occurs only when five basic elements are structured into the situation. The five elements are positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, appropriate use of social skills and group processing. The resulting outcomes not only include 'higher achievement, more positive relationships, and greater psychological health' (Johnson & Johnson 1996:n.p.) but also a number of outcomes specifically related to SDL: intrinsic motivation competence motivation developmental motivation continuing motivation commitment to and persistence in working to achieve a goal learner control internalizing imposed goals the simultaneous accomplishment of multiple goals creativity. While SDL can take place when goals are structured competitively or individualistically, it is within CL situations that SDL is most facilitated and enhanced. Working cooperatively helps individuals formulate goals, makes goals more meaningful and creates the conditions in which imposed goals are internalized and made personal goals. Cooperation also provides resources to help achieve the goals and moves self-efficacy to joint efficacy. It increases awareness of what are acceptable and unacceptable means of achieving one's goals. Cooperative learning allows students to achieve multiple goals simultaneously. Finally, there are multiple outcomes resulting from CL that increase the effectiveness of SDL and enhance the quality of the learning that takes place. It is within the union of SDL and CL that students tend to benefit the most from their efforts.
