Emergency Water Treatment with Bleach in the United States: The Need to Revise EPA Recommendations

During emergencies in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) currently recommends using bottled water, or boiling or treating water by adding 1/8 teaspoon (or 8 drops) of bleach to 1 gal of water. This bleach recommendation is internally inconsistent, a relatively high chlorine dose (5.55-8.67 mg/L), and unsupported by evidence. In this study, bleach was added in three different dosages to six waters available to emergency-affected populations in each of six states; free chlorine residual (FCR) and Escherichia coli/total conforms were measured 1-24 h after treatment. Data were analyzed using four efficacy criteria. Results indicated the dosages in the current EPA recommendation are unnecessarily high to ensure (1) maintenance of FCR for 24 h after treatment, (2) absence of E. coli/total conforms, and (3) establishment of a CT-factor sufficient to inactivate Giardia lamblia and enteric viruses 1 h after treatment. Additionally, emergency-prone populations did not have the materials to complete treatment with bleach in their household. Therefore, we recommend EPA review and revise the current recommendation to establish an internally consistent, criteria-based recommendation that is usable by emergency-affected populations. We also recommend investigating the use of, new or commercially available water treatment products for emergency response in the United States.