Urban horticulture - gardens as elements of an urbanizing world

The article consists of five parts. Part one addresses the concept that gardens are created only by civilized societies. Examples from ancient Egypt to more recent societies and their symbolism are presented. Part two considers aspects of the influence of Roman urban garden culture. Part three focuses on gardens as a world in miniature. It refers to bonsai, Adonis, and balcony gardens. Part four comments on Jan van Eyck's fifteenth century painting "Madonna and chancellor Rolin" as a representation of urban horticulture. The fifth, and final part is concerned with urban horticulture as exemplified in gardens as elements of open space systems. It addresses the open space question, the issue of garden cities, the design of gardens, and the role of allotment and community gardens.