Instrumentalism in the land of opportunity: Socioeconomic causes and emotional consequences

This paper analyzes the relationship between the sense of control over one's own life and the belief that most Americans control their lives and create their own good or bad outcomes. We analyze the effects of four aspects of stratification: an ascribed status (race), achieved statuses of differing stability (education and household income), and recent economic hardship (trouble paying bills or buying necessities). Using data from a 1990 survey of 2,031 Americans, we find that the large majority hold instrumental views of themselves and of other Americans. Socioeconomic status strengthens both views, although education and income increase the belief that one controls one's own life more than the belief that other Americans control theirs. Each belief also appears to generalize to the other, Finally, the Americans who feel that they have little control over their own lives apparently rake heart from the belief that most Americans can achieve what they set their minds to, that most people's problems results from their bad decisions and lack of effort, and that the success or failure of others was more than luck. Either a firm sense of personal control or (when that is weak) a firm belief in American instrumentalism minimizes depression. We see no sign that blaming outcomes on chance, circumstance, or others makes Americans feel better.