Children's emotional responsiveness and sociomoral understanding and associations with mothers' and fathers' socialization practices

Sixty-two preschoolers (55% boys) were presented hypothetical dilemmas about moral transgressions. Responses were evaluated in terms of children's emotional responsiveness, prosocial motives, and readiness to intervene. Mothers and fathers reported separately on their use of victim-oriented inductions, teaching reparations, power assertion, and love withdrawal. Four years later, parents reported on children's behavioral problems, emotion-regulation ability, and empathy. Mothers reported using more victim-oriented inductions than did fathers, and girls responded with more personal distress and reported more rule-oriented motives. Maternal love withdrawal was a positive predictor of empathy and motives of concern. For fathers, teaching reparations were positively related to children's sympathy. Interestingly, mothers' power assertion was negatively related to sympathy at high levels of fathers' power assertion, but not at low levels. Maternal power assertion during the preschool years was negatively associated with children's long-term empathy scores. School-age outcomes also were meaningfully predicted by earlier sociomoral competence.