Challenges and prospects of using treated wastewater to manage water scarcity crises in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) are facing severe water shortages, which jeopardize sustainable development and restrict human, industrial, and agricultural expansion. Rapid urbanization and increasing living standards have further exacerbated the problem. Although arable land in GCC countries is averaging only 4.3% of the total land area, average water use for agriculture is 70% of the renewable water resources and is even higher in Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Oman. Despite this water use, the average contribution of agriculture to the gross domestic product (GDP) is only 0.8%. However, massive oil and gas reserves in the region compensate for the scarcity of land and water resources in GCC countries.