Adverse childhood experiences and behavior problems among poor Black children: Nonresident father involvement and single mothers' parenting stress

Background: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood and developmental outcomes during the middle childhood and adolescent years have been understudied among lowincome Black families. Objective: To test a model linking economic hardship, single mothers' parenting stress, ACEs, and nonresident fathers' involvement in early childhood to behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Participants and setting: We used six waves of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers, nonresident fathers, and their children (at child birth and ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15) from the Fragile Fam ilies and Child Wellbeing Study, a nationally representative data set. Method: Structural equation models with latent variables that incorporate path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were tested. Results: Mothers' economic hardship was associated directly with parenting stress (beta = 0.27, p < .001) and related both directly (beta = 0.22, p < .001) and indirectly (through parenting stress) to the children's increased likelihood of exposure to ACEs (indirect effect = 0.05, p < .001). Nonresident fathers' involvement early on (child's age 1 to 5) was associated directly with reductions in the mothers' economic hardship (beta = - 0.18, p < .001), children's reduced exposure to ACEs (beta = -0.15, p < .001), and fewer behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence (beta = -0.10, p < .001). Conclusion: Nonresident Black fathers' involvement in single-mother families may buffer the adverse consequences over time for economically and socially disadvantaged Black children of exposure to ACEs in early childhood. Interventions that encourage sustained involvement by nonresident Black fathers with young children and their single mothers are recommended.