Moose anti-predator behaviour towards baying dogs in a wolf-free area

Understanding the impact of human activity on prey anti-predator behaviour is becoming increasingly important. For many species, hunting is the dominating mortality cause in areas where predators are functionally extinct. In a controlled field experiment in Northern Sweden devoid of wolves, we exposed adult female moose (Alces alces) to hunting activity using a dog (Canis lupus familiaris) to study individual moose anti-predator behaviour. Moose were more active, had larger 24-h activity ranges and left the area after the disturbance. Our study supports the existence of several anti-predator strategies within a species even when predators are absent. A mixed strategy among individuals may be beneficial when a new predator eventually enters the system. Instead of fronting as expected from other study systems, most individuals fled when confronted. We argue that heavily harvested Scandinavian moose may be more adapted to human and bear predation in contrast to the suggested behavioural maladaption towards wolf predation. We build on two major lines of arguments; first, being less defensive, but fleeing when approached by a baying dog which mimics wolf encounters, is likely to increase moose survival compared with the risk to be shot when being defensive and fronting, held at bay. Secondly, we assume that escaping in a tortuous manner, i.e. in an unpredictable way, may increase the chance to undergo persecution by increasing the chance that chaser switches the target animal, especially in areas of high moose density. We recommend future studies to address individual variation and behavioural plasticity in anti-predator behaviour.