Wastewater treatment plants act as essential sources of microplastic formation in aquatic environments: A critical review

According to extensive in situ investigations, the microplastics (MPs) determined in current wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are mostly aged, with roughened surfaces and varied types of oxygen-containing functional groups (i.e., carbonyl and hydroxyl). However, the formation mechanism of aged MPs in WWTPs is still unclear. This paper systematically reviewed MP fragmentation and generation mechanisms in WWTPs at different treatment stages. The results highlight that MPs are prone to undergo physical abrasion, biofouling, and chemical oxidation-associated weathering in WWTPs at different treatment stages and can be further decomposed into smaller secondary MPs, including in nanoplastics (less than 1000 nm or 100 nm in size), suggesting that WWTPs can act as a formation source for MPs in aquatic environments. Sand associated mechanical crashes in the pri-mary stage, microbes in active sewage sludge-related biodegradation in the secondary stage, and oxidant -relevant chemical oxidation processes (light photons, Cl2, and O3) in the tertiary stage are the dominant cau-ses of MP formation in WWTPs. For MP formation mechanisms in WWTPs, external environmental forces (shear and stress forces, UV radiation, and biodegradation) can first induce plastic chain scission, destroy the plastic molecular arrangement, and create abundant pores and cracks on the MP surface. Then, the physicochemical properties (modulus of elasticity, tensile strength and elongation at break) of MPs shift consequently and finally breakdown into smaller secondary MPs or nanoscale plastics. Overall, this review provides new insights to better understand the formation mechanism, occurrence, fate, and adverse effects of aged microplastics/nanoplastics in current WWTPs.