Helium, hydrogen, and fuzz in plasma-facing materials

Tungsten, the primary material under consideration as the divertor material in magnetic-confinement nuclear fusion reactors, has been known for the last decade to form 'fuzz'-a layer of microscopic, high-void-fraction features on the surface-after only a few hours of exposure to helium plasma. Fuzz has also been observed in molybdenum, tantalum, and several other metals. Helium bubbles in tungsten and other metals are also known to change the hardness of the surface, accumulate at grain boundaries and dislocations, and increase hydrogen isotope retention. This article reviews helium-and hydrogen-induced surface evolution, including fuzz formation, in tungsten and other plasma-facing materials, as well as modeling and experimental efforts that have been undertaken to understand the mechanisms of fuzz formation, helium and hydrogen transport in plasma-facing materials, and relevant atomic-scale and electronic effects relevant to plasma-facing materials.